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journal article Fiscal Paradise: Foreign Tax Havens and American BusinessThe Quarterly Journal of Economics Vol. 109, No. 1 (Feb., 1994) , pp. 149-182 (34 pages) Published By: Oxford University Press https://doi.org/10.2307/2118431 https://www.jstor.org/stable/2118431 Read and download Log in through your school or library Alternate access options For independent researchers Subscribe to JPASS Unlimited reading + 10 downloads Purchase article $39.00 - Download now and later Abstract The tax haven affiliates of American corporations account for more than 20 percent of U.S. foreign direct investment, and nearly a third of the foreign profits of U.S. firms. American companies report extraordinarily high profit rates on their tax haven investments in 1982. This behavior implies that the revenue-maximizing tax rate for a typical haven is around 5-8 percent. American (and foreign) investment in tax havens has an uncertain effect on U.S. tax revenue, but since low tax rates encourage American companies to shift profits out of high-tax foreign countries, it is possible that low foreign tax rates ultimately enhance U.S. tax collections. Journal Information The Quarterly Journal of Economics (QJE) is the oldest professional journal of economics in the English language. Edited at Harvard University's Department of Economics, it covers all aspects of the field -- from the journal's traditional emphasis on microtheory, to both empirical and theoretical macroeconomics. QJE is invaluable to professional and academic economists and students around the world. Publisher Information Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. OUP is the world's largest university press with the widest global presence. It currently publishes more than 6,000 new publications a year, has offices in around fifty countries, and employs more than 5,500 people worldwide. It has become familiar to millions through a diverse publishing program that includes scholarly works in all academic disciplines, bibles, music, school and college textbooks, business books, dictionaries and reference books, and academic journals. Rights & Usage This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. What Is Tax Avoidance?The term tax avoidance refers to the use of legal methods to minimize the amount of income tax owed by an individual or a business. This is generally accomplished by claiming as many deductions and credits as are allowable. It may also be achieved by prioritizing investments that have tax advantages, such as buying tax-free municipal bonds. Tax avoidance is not the same as tax evasion, which relies on illegal methods such as underreporting income and falsifying deductions. Key Takeaways
Tax Avoidance Vs. Tax EvasionUnderstanding Tax AvoidanceTax avoidance is a legal strategy that many taxpayers can use to avoid paying taxes or at least lower their tax bills. In fact, millions of individuals and businesses use some form of tax avoidance to cut down how much they owe to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) legally and legitimately. When used in this context, tax avoidance is also referred to as a tax shelter. Taxpayers can take advantage of tax avoidance through various credits, deductions, exclusions, and loopholes, such as:
Credits and deductions (and, therefore, tax avoidance) must first be approved by U.S. Congress and signed into law by the president before it becomes part of the U.S. Tax Code. Once done, these provisions can be used for the benefit or relief of some or all taxpayers. Tax avoidance is built into the Internal Revenue Code (IRC). Lawmakers use the Tax Code to manipulate citizen behavior by offering tax credits, deductions, or
exemptions. By doing so, they indirectly subsidize certain essential services such as health insurance, retirement saving, and higher education. Or, they may use the Tax Code to advance national goals, such as greater energy efficiency. The cap on the child tax credit was raised from $2,000 to $3,000 for children ages six through 17 and $3,600 for children under six. This change is part of the American Relief Act and is effective for the 2021 tax year. Special ConsiderationsThe expanding use of tax avoidance in the U.S. Tax Code has made it one of the most complex tax codes in the world. In fact, its sheer complexity causes many taxpayers to miss out on certain tax breaks. Taxpayers end up spending billions of hours each year filing tax returns, with much of that time used looking for ways to avoid paying higher taxes. Families often have a difficult time making decisions about retirement, savings, and education because the tax code changes every year. Businesses especially suffer the consequences of a tax code that constantly evolves, which can affect hiring decisions and growth strategies. Eliminating or reducing tax avoidance is at the core of most proposals seeking to change the Tax Code. Newer proposals often seek to simplify the process by flattening tax rates and removing most tax avoidance provisions. Proponents of establishing a flat tax rate argue that it would eliminate the need to pursue tax avoidance strategies. Opponents, however, call the flat tax concept regressive. There are some tax policies, though, that disproportionately advantage citizens with higher incomes. For instance:
Make sure you save every receipt that may be useful for legal tax avoidance if you're a business owner, freelancer, or investor. Types of Tax AvoidanceAs noted above, there are several ways that taxpaying entities can avoid paying taxes. This includes certain credits and deductions, exclusions, and loopholes that make up the U.S. Tax Code. The following are just a few of the tools taxpayers have at their disposal to take advantage of tax avoidance. The Standard DeductionMore than 90% of individuals use the standard deduction rather than itemizing their deductions. The standard deduction is $12,550 for individuals and $25,100 for married couples filing jointly for 2021. That figure increases to $12,950 for single filers and $25,900 for married couples filing jointly for 2022. For most Americans, that negates the usefulness even of the mortgage interest deduction—especially now that the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA), which was signed in 2017, increased the standard deduction capped deductions for state and local taxes at $10,000. But there are plenty of small business owners, freelancers, investors, and others who save every business expense receipt that may be eligible for a deduction. Others leap to the IRS challenge and angle for every tax deduction and credit they can get. Retirement SavingsSaving money for your retirement means you're probably engaging in tax avoidance. And that's a good thing. Every individual who contributes to an employer-sponsored retirement plan or invests in an individual retirement account (IRA) is engaging in tax avoidance. If the account is a so-called traditional plan, the investor gets an immediate tax break equalling the amount they contribute each year, up to a limit that is revised annually. Income taxes on the money is owed when it is withdrawn after the saver retires. The retiree's taxable income will probably be lower as well as the taxes owed. That's tax avoidance. Roth plans allow investors to save after-tax money and the tax break will come after retirement, in the
form of tax-free savings. In this case, the entire balance of the account is tax-free. Roths allow the saver to permanently avoid income taxes on the money their contributions earn over the year. Workplace Expenses
You can use deductions through your workplace to avoid taxes. You may be able to claim certain expenses that are not reimbursed through your employer on your annual tax return. These costs are considered necessary in order to do your job. Some examples of workplace expenses include mileage on a personal vehicle,
union dues. or tools that you may need to use. Offshoring There are
loopholes in the U.S. Tax Code that allow corporations and high-net-worth individuals (HNWIs) to move their money to offshore tax-havens. These are locations that
have looser regulations, more favorable tax laws, lower financial risks, and confidentiality. Going offshore by setting up subsidiaries or bank accounts allows these taxpaying entities to avoid paying (higher) taxes in their home countries. Tax Avoidance vs. Tax EvasionPeople often confuse tax avoidance with tax evasion. While both are ways to avoid having to pay taxes, they are very different. Tax avoidance is very legal while tax evasion is completely illegal. Tax evasion happens when people underreport or fail to report income or revenue earned to a taxing authority like the IRS. You are guilty of tax evasion if you don't report all of your income, such as tips or bonuses paid by your employer. Claiming credits to which you aren't entitled is also considered tax evasion. Some taxpayers are guilty of tax evasion by not filing their taxes or not paying their taxes even if they've filed returns. Tax evasion is a serious offense. Entities that are found liable can be fined, jailed, or both. What is the first step when facing an ethical dilemma?The first step in resolving an ethical dilemma is to identify the conflicting values and responsibilities.
Which term describes someone who reports illegal or unethical behavior?A whistleblower is an individual who may report illegal behavior once they notice it.
What is the best strategy to improve US business ethics?Here are our Top Tips for raising the bar and creating a more ethical workplace:. Create a code. ... . Engage with your employees and customers. ... . Reinforce the benefits of the code. ... . Be a good role model. ... . Train your employees. ... . Promote your ethical behaviour. ... . Reward ethical behaviour. ... . Learn from your mistakes.. What is a reason why a business should be managed ethically?Business ethics enhances the law by outlining acceptable behaviors beyond government control. Corporations establish business ethics to promote integrity among their employees and gain trust from key stakeholders, such as investors and consumers.
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