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| Biological Psychology
| a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.
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| Neuron
| a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
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| Sensory Neurons
| carry incoming information from the tissues and sensory organs (eyes, ears, taste buds, nose, nerve endings/touch) to the brain and spinal cord.
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| Motor Neurons
| carry outgoing information from the tissues and sensory organs (eyes, ears, taste buds, nose, nerve endings/touch) to the brain and spinal cord.
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| Interneurons
| nerve cells within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
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| Dendrite
| the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages (listen) and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
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| Axon
| the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
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| Myelin Sheath
| a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing axon (the fibers) of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
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| Action Potential
| a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
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| Threshold
| a level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
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| Synapse
| the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
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| Neurotransmitters
| chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
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| Reuptake
| a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.
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| Endorphins
| “morphine within” – natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.
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| Nervous System
| the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells; divided into 2 parts: peripheral and central.
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| Central Nervous System
| the brain and spinal cord.
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| Peripheral Nervous System
| the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
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| Nerves
| bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
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| Somatic Nervous System
| the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
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| Autonomic Nervous System
| the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).
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| Sympathetic Nervous System
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
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| Parasympathetic Nervous System
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
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| Reflex
| a simple, autonomic response to a sensory stimulus such as the knee-jerk response.
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| Endocrine System
| the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
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| Hormones
| chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
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| Adrenal Glands
| a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
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| Pituitary Gland
| the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
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| Lesion
| tissue destruction; a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.
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| Electroencephalogram (EEG)
| an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
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| CT Scan
| a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.
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| PET Scan
| a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
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| MRI
| a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue;scans show brain anatomy.
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| fMRI (functional MRI)
| a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive scans; show brain function.
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| Brainstem
| the oldest part of the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.
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| Medulla
| the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
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| Reticular Formation
| a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
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| Thalamus
| the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
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| Cerebellum
| the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
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| Limbic System
| doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
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| Amygdala
| two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.
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| Hypothalamus
| a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
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| Cerebral Cortex
| the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.
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| Glial Cells
| cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
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| Frontal Lobes
| portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.
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| Parietal Lobes
| portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
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| Occipital Lobes
| portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.
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| Temporal Lobes
| portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
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| Motor Cortex
| an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
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| Sensory Cortex
| area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
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| Association Areas
| areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
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| Aphasia
| impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).
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| Broca’s Area
| controls language expression that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
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| Wernicke’s Area
| controls language reception – a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
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| Plasticity
| the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
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| Neurogenesis
| the formation of new neurons.
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| Corpus Callosum
| the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
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| Split Brain
| a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.
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| Consciousness
| our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
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| Cognitive Neuroscience
| the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language).
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| Dual Processing
| the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
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| Behavior genetics
| the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
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| Environment
| every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
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| Chromosomes
| threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
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| DNA
| a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
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| Genes
| the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.
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| Genome
| the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.
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| Heritability
| the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
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| Identical Twins
| develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically exact organisms.
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| Fraternal Twins
| develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.
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| Interaction
| the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
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| Molecular Genetics
| the subfield of biology that seeks to identify specific genes influencing behavior and the structure and function of those genes.
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| Evolutionary Psychology
| the study of the changes in behavior and the mind that have taken place during mankind’s history using the principles of natural selection
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| Natural Selection
| the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
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| Mutation
| the random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
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Sensory receptors in the skin, which lack the speed-boosting insulating layer called a myelin sheath, are among the slowest, at 1 mph.
Hormones are transported primarily via the bloodstream throughout the body, where they bind to receptors on target cells, triggering a response. Because of this dependence on the cardiovascular system for transport, this type of communication is much slower than that observed for neural signaling.
Endocrine glands make chemicals called hormones and pass them straight into the bloodstream. Hormones can be thought of as chemical messages. From the blood stream, the hormones communicate with the body by heading towards their target cell to bring about a particular change or effect to that cell.
